Adds Muscular Strength and Power, Facilitates Building Lean Muscle Mass, Helps Reduce Body Fat, and Optimizes Sports Performance and Endurance


Requirements | Why People Take It | Anti-Aging Considerations | Safety Considerations | References

Creatine is a naturally occurring crystalline molecule that includes atoms of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen (C4H9N3O2). Creatine plays a vital role in the release of energy in the muscles of humans and other animals. Creatine also plays an important role in nerve cell function. [1]

The primary energy-producing molecule for bursts of vigorous muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP releases energy at the time it breaks apart, loses a phosphate atom, and forms adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The body only maintains a supply of ATP sufficient to last a few seconds. [2] The body replenishes ATP from another molecule: creatine phosphate (CP), which provides a replacement phosphate atom so that ADP recycles as a new ATP molecule. Larger reserves of CP (sometimes known in the literature as phospho-creatine: PCr) produce greater efficiency and capacity for muscle performance. Creatine also buffers lactic acid production, thereby reducing muscle fatigue. After CP is utilized by the muscles, the resultant creatine byproduct is transported by the blood to the kidneys, and excreted in urine as creatinine.

Creatine is widely used by athletes, particularly in Europe, and is not banned by any U.S.A. or international sporting federation. The CP-ATP-ADP process occurs rapidly in an athlete's muscles, for example, throughout a 100-meter race. There are indications that creatine supplementation also produces beneficial results in general populations. Only approximately 70% of people who take creatine supplements note beneficial effects, perhaps due to other dietary habits and/or individual metabolic factors. [3] Among those who benefit from creatine, results are observable (increased lean muscle mass, etc.) within one or two weeks after the start of supplementation.

Requirements

R.D.A. Minimal Requirements. The U.S. Government does not have a Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for creatine. An average-size person typically loses approximately 2 grams of creatine daily [4].

Unique Needs. Athletes and bodybuilders view creatine supplementation has having two aspects: the "loading" and "maintenance" phases. The "cycling," requirements, if any, are not readily known.

Information Source	Loading: Daily Intake	Loading: Timeframe	Maintenance: Daily Intake	Maintenance: Timeframe
FOR BODYBUILDERS
Advanced Nutritional Therapies [3]	20 g	Days 1-5	2 or more g	From Day 6 on
J.C. Clark, Ph.D., ATC at Oxford University [4]
Results of volunteers in a bicycling study	20 g	Days 1-6	5 g	From Day 7 on
Prof. Hultman and Pierre Dahl in Stockholm [5]
Bodyweight of 85-95 kg (187-209 lbs.)	20 g	Days 1-4	5 g	From Day 5 on
Bodyweight of 75-84 kg (165-185 lbs.)	15 g	Days 1-4	4 g	From Day 5 on
Bodyweight of 65-74 kg (143-163 lbs.)	10 g	Days 1-4	3 g	From Day 5 on
FOR GENERAL POPULATIONS
Younger at Last [6]	Not Applicable	N.A.	3 g	From Day 1 on

Signs of Deficiency. Creatine deficiency in situations of strenuous muscle function results in fatigue, lessened muscle strength, compromised endurance, increased muscle soreness, and the need for frequent resting.

Food Sources. Red meat (beef) and fish are rich in creatine. A large serving of meat provides only 1 gram of creatine. [4] Because creatine is sensitive to heat, normal cooking preparation may result in the substantial loss of available creatine from meat and fish, particularly if the food is fully cooked, which generally is advisable.

Forms. The common form of creatine supplementation is creatine monohydrate (CM), which chemically is identical to creatine except for the addition of a single hydrate (C4H9N3O2-H2O). CM is a white, odorless crystalline powder that is available in tablet or powder form. In solution, CM is clear and colorless. CM is readily converted to creatine phosphate (CP) in the body.

Naturally occurring CP is manufactured by the liver, pancreas, and kidneys, then transported by the circulatory system to the muscles, where it is stored. CP is produced by the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine. However, CP cannot be consumed orally as a supplement, because CP is broken down during the digestive process. CP has been administered to athletes by means of intravenous and intramuscular injections, in order to allow athletes to train longer, recover more rapidly from vigorous exercise, and achieve peak athletic performance.

Why People Take It

High-Intensity, Short-Duration Competitive Sports. Creatine supplementation is widely used by athletes seeking a competitive advantage in sports involving brief but intense exertion, such as sprinting, weight-lifting, shotputting, javelin throwing, football, baseball, etc.

Runners and Cyclists. Many competitors rely on creatine during training and during competitive events, for its ability to improve athletic endurance in uphill race segments, mid-race changes in running speed, and sprint finishes. In addition to creatine's positive contribution to short-distance running, creatine supplementation is also used by runners for longer-distance events, such as the 1000-meter running events. However, the muscle-bulking effect of creatine may be at cross purposes with competitive runners' weight goals.

Physical Attractiveness. Creatine is of value to individuals who exercise regularly in order to improve overall muscle tone and definition.

Body Building. Body builders regularly take creatine supplements to increase their muscle mass, and to have the power and strength for vigorous weightlifting and exercise programs. Many body builders report increases in their lean muscle masses of between 6 and 10 pounds while supplementing with creatine monohydrate.

Vegetarians. Meat-restricted and strict vegetarians may consider taking maintenance levels (2 grams daily) of creatine because of their reduced dietary intake and typically low body reserves of creatine.

Weight Loss. Creatine supplementation increases the rate of loss of body fat in conjunction with aerobic exercises. During exercise sessions lasting three minutes or more, a variety of fuels are used in ATP-ADP production, including body fat.

Anti-Aging Considerations

As people age, they naturally produce less creatine. [6] Without ATP, muscle proteins will not contract, muscle will not be able to work, and the muscle cells will die. [4]

The highest concentrations of creatine are found in skeletal muscle, followed by cardiac and smooth muscle, brain, kidney, and spermatozoan. The presence of creatine in these key organs and tissues might suggest that creatine replenishment through supplementation could have beneficial effects as inhibitors of the effects of aging.

The liver plays a key role in creatine regulation in the body. If liver function is compromised for any reason (aging, disease, alcohol consumption, etc.), the result could be inefficiencies in creatine production and metabolism. This, in turn, can cause reduced muscle mass, lessened strength, and fatigue.

As a result of creatine supplementation in high doses, the kidney increases its production of creatine, which further supports creatine optimization. [4] Scientific studies in England are evaluating the possible role of creatine supplementation combined with exercise to facilitate heart muscle strengthening and improvement of heart function. [6]

On the cellular level, mitochondria in the muscle cells are the main producers of ATP. Creatine supplementation stimulates the mitochondria in muscle cells, which increases anaerobic capacity as well as aerobic recovery. [4] Also on the cellular level, creatine has been shown to bind to the cell membranes and to facilitate stabilization of these cell structures. [4]

Safety Considerations

Creatine can be used safely by all adults. [6] A person diagnosed with hypertension (high blood pressure) is advised to consult a health care professional before starting any exercise program, whether or not it includes creatine supplementation.

There is no known level of toxicity. Because the human body and human muscles limit maximum levels of creatine, supplementation of large doses (for example, above 20 grams per day) will be readily eliminated through urinary excretion. Occasional side-effects among some individuals have been noted, such as headaches.

Clinical tests are available for determining creatinine levels as a measure of kidney function, where the normal readings are 0.6 to 1.3 per 100 cc of serum. [7] A harmless side effect of creatine supplementation is increased creatinine levels in urine, which can give a false positive result for some tests of kidney problems. Similar false-positive results are found with vitamin C supplementation. Within a few days after creatine supplementation is stopped, the creatinine levels in the muscle, blood, and urine return to normal levels, resulting in normal test results. Creatinine tests also are useful in determining proper levels of glutathione (GHS) in an individual. [8]

When taking creative supplements, individuals should increase their daily consumption of water to 10 to 12 eight-ounce glasses. The consumption of coffee (a diuretic) seems to hinder creatine's effectiveness.

References

[1] Klatz, D.O., Ronald with Kahn, Carol, Grow Young with HGH (New York: 1997, HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.), page 270. ISBN 0-06-018682-8

[2] Powers, S.K. and Howley, E.T., Exercise Physiology: Theory and Application to Fitness Performance (Burr Ridge, IL: 1994, Brown and Benchmark Publishers, a division of McGraw-Hill). ISBN 0697126579.

[3] European Journal of Applied Physiology, 1994, pages 268-76, cited in Cooper, M.D., M.P.H., Kenneth H., Advanced Nutritional Therapies (Nashville: 1996, Thomas Nelson, Inc. Publishers), page 188. ISBN 0-7852-7302-6

[4] Clark, Ph.D., ATC, J.F., Dept. of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, "Creatine Monohydrate: A Review of Its Uses in Sport" (revised July 18, 1997) at http://www.netstorage.com/hon/summary.html

[5] Derived from the works by Pierre Dahl (nutritionist at the Nutrition and Soft Tissue Center in Stockholm, Sweden) and Professor Hultman (at Huddinge Hospital in Stockholm, Sweden) as cited in Smeets, Mark, "Creatine FAQ" website (updated June 17, 1996) at http://193.171.51.226/opul/crfaq.htm

[6] Lamm, M.D., Steven and Couzens, Gerald Secor, Younger at Last: The New World of Vitality Medicine (New York: 1997, Simon & Schuster), pages 211-12. ISBN 0-684-83438-3

[7] Pearson, Durk and Shaw, Sandy, Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach (New York: 1980, Warner Books), page 452. ISBN 0-446-38735-5

[8] Pressman, D.C., Ph.D., C.C.N., Alan H. with Buff, Sheila The GSH Phenomenon: Nature's Most Powerful Antioxidant and Healing Agent (New York: 1997, St. Martin's Press), page 50. ISBN 0-312-15135-7

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